Probiotics: Mechanisms, Microbiome, and Therapeutic Uses: Probiotics the Microbiome: From Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Practice

Probiotics are live microorganisms that provide health benefits through modulation of gut microbiota, enhancement of intestinal barrier integrity, immune regulation, and inhibition of pathogenic microorganisms. Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium are among the most widely studied probiotic genera and have shown therapeutic potential in gastrointestinal, metabolic, inflammatory, cardiovascular, and liver diseases. Recent advances in omics technologies, including genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and metaproteomics, have improved understanding of probiotic-host interactions and the molecular mechanisms underlying their beneficial effects. However, probiotics are highly sensitive to processing conditions, storage, and gastrointestinal stresses, which reduce their viability and therapeutic efficacy. The integration of probiotics with encapsulation technologies, nanodelivery systems, and omics approaches represents a promising strategy for improving functional foods, personalized nutrition, and nutraceutical applications.